The Closet Case

If you asked a group of avid sports fans to name five openly gay professional athletes still active in their careers, what would be the response? I would go so far to say that half of them could not even come up with one. Homosexuality in sport is still considered a faux pas. The military policy of “Don’t ask, don’t tell” seems to fall closer in line with the guideline for sports, than that of mere acceptance. However, just as it is in the military, the policy will never mean that homosexuals are not present. So why is it difficult for professional athletes to be either openly gay from the start or come out of the closet during their career? It is likely a sense of fear and uncertainty that pressures most to keep quiet. The fear of reprisal from their teammates. The fear of losing sponsors and endorsements. The fear of losing franchise support and fan base. The fear of losing respect in the public eye and media. The fear of judgment of their athletic career based on their personal life. Within our society and culture, we have created an environment that harbors these fears and holds them true.

Over the course of history, despite any potential repercussions, some athletes have taken steps out of the closet (information taken from ESPN.com):

In 1975, David Kopay was the first professional team-sport athlete to reveal his homosexuality three years after retiring. Kopay was an NFL running back who played for San Francisco, Detroit, Washington, New Orleans and Green Bay between 1964-1972.

In the 1980s, Billie Jean King and Martina Navratilova went public with their sexuality. Navratilova did so during her career and lost endorsement deals as a result.

In 1985, an offensive lineman for the University of Pittsburgh, Ed Gallagher, attempted suicide by jumping from a dam 12 days after his first sexual encounter with a man. He survived but was left paraplegic. Gallagher commented that before his suicide he could not resolve his image of himself as an athlete with gay urges. Following the incident, Gallagher admits the incident forced him to face his sexuality and stated “I was more emotionally paralyzed then, than I am physically now.”

In 1988, Dave Pallone, a National League umpire alleges that he was accused of having involvement with a teenage sex ring and subsequently fired. The charges were dropped based on groundlessness. Just prior to these false allegations, Pallone had come out to the then-National League President Bart Giamatti. Pallone was fired on the grounds of his homosexuality.

In 1991, Penn State University women’s basketball coach, Rene Portland, reveals her policy against lesbians playing on her team.

In 1994, four-time Olympic diving gold medalist, Greg Louganis, comes out publically. In the same year, openly lesbian mountain biker, Missy Giove, wins her first world title. Giove was considered the Michael Jordan of her sport and wins titles in 1996 and 1997.

In 1996, Muffin Spencer-Devlin, an 18-year LPGA veteran, discusses being a lesbian with Sports Illustrated.

In 1998, former track-and-field coach at Auburn and Northwestern, Michael Muska, is named athletic director at Oberlin College and is the first openly gay man to hold such a position in college athletics.

More recent claims include Sheryl Swoopes and John Amaechi. In 2005, Sheryl Swoopes publically disclosed her relationship with former basketball player and Houston Comets assistant coach, Alisa Scott. Swoopes goes on to play with the WNBA and European leagues. In 2007, former NBA player, John Amaechi, reveals his homosexuality with ESPN, as well as releasing a book titled Man in the Middle. Former NBA player, Tim Hardaway, publically responded to Amaechi’s announcement stating:

"First of all I wouldn’t want him on my team. Second of all, if he was on my team I would really distance myself from him because I don’t think that’s right and I don’t think he should be in the locker room when we’re in the locker room. Something has to give, If you have 12 other ballplayers in your locker room that's upset and can't concentrate and always worried about him in the locker room or on the court or whatever, it's going to be hard for your teammates to win and accept him as a teammate.”

Team sports pose the toughest challenge when it comes to acceptance for gay athletes. Cohesion and trust are the key components to winning as a team. However, statements like Hardaway’s, show the social climate that players must succumb to if they choose to come out of the closet during their career. This is why it comes to no big surprise that most athletes choose to do so once their playing careers have ended. Those fears are minimized and the social environment is less impacting. Homophobia is a clear issue in our society and thus carries over into sport since it is a social construct. It is no secret that homosexuality is still a heavily debated and discussed topic in society. Ignorance is the biggest proponent of this issue. Many people still believe being gay means you cannot control same sex urges or you are attracted to anyone who is the same sex as you. For those who believe this way, a locker room environment would be the root of much worry with an openly gay individual present. These are not psychologically-based theories; these are socially-based theories that have been passed down from generation to generation. Until theories about homosexuality become more in line with truth, the social tempo will continue to dictate the mentality such as Tim Hardaway’s. The irony of it all is that the gay athletes bear the real burden. The burden of ridicule, mistreatment and judgment which are born from our societal beliefs and misunderstandings of homosexuality. Will our society ever have the courage to change?

How Does Religion Impact Sport?

From a sociological standpoint, religion is defined as a socially shared set of beliefs and rituals that people use to transcend the material world and give meaning to important aspects of their lives (Coakley, 2007). Some would argue that religion and sport are rooted within the same ideology – a culturally-based way that people find meaning in life and connect with each other. The fact is that religion cannot be ignored when analyzing sport as a social construction.

In the United States, we see a number of church leagues and organizations that use sport to channel community and togetherness within their subculture. These leagues are generally well-versed in sportsmanship, openness, and creating a sense of belonging. Sport in the United States is viewed as a positive influence on our community and individuals. It shows us how to work together to achieve a common goal, despite our differences. Sport can often act as a platform to exercise religious-based concepts such as helping one another, seeing past differences, being involved in the community and the like. Furthermore, some religious-based groups see sport as a way to keep youth focused on a positive outlet and distanced from trouble and negative pressures growing up. The YMCA is a great example of an organization founded on principles associated with Christianity and sport. George Williams founded the YMCA on June 6, 1844 in London England. The original concept was to put Christian principles into practice; the early YMCA targeted young men who sought work in London but were living in rough conditions. Its goal was to offer an alternative to life on the streets that involved prayer and Bible study; it was meeting the social need in the community. The YMCA was unique in that it ignored the separation of churches and social classes evident in that time, and opened its doors to all. The YMCA continues its mission on an international level today of building a healthy spirit, mind and body (Zald, 1963).

Religion can also bear a burden in sport. Take for instance the Iraqi National soccer team. Uday Hussein, Sadaam Hussein’s notorious brother, was in charge of the Iraqi Olympic Committee and the team itself. Under Uday’s control, the team was subjected to torture which took place in the basement of the Olympic building. It was equipped with contraptions such as a sarcophagus with long nails pointing inward so victims could be punctured and suffocated. Another contraption was a metal frame designed to clamp over a prisoner’s body, with footrests at the bottom, rings at the shoulders to hoist the victim, and attachment points for power cables to deliver electric shocks. Losing games or poor passes could result in beatings, imprisonment and floggings by electric cable. Uday’s justification for terrorizing the players was the fact that a majority of the team was Shiite Muslim, at a time of Sunni governmental control through Sadaam (Burns, 2003). The religious differences between Shiite and Sunni Muslim are the source for a long-standing historical battle. However, as shown by this case, even sport is not free from religious-based cultural differences.

The two examples above show that different cultural settings can produce different roles for religion within sport. The latter case, however extreme it may be, is not to be ignored when studying religion and sport as social constructs. The main component of a social construct is people, which is evident in both religion and sport. Examining the two will lead to greater understanding of how religion can impact sport in society.

The Olympics and Political Presence

Throughout the twentieth century, there was hope that sports would improve foreign relations and create a model for cultural, economic, and political relationships. However, recent history shows that most nations use sport to pursue self-interests rather than international understanding (Coakley, 2007). There is a certain level of prestige associated with hosting global sporting events, such as the Olympic Games. This prestige is the subject of most nations’ objectives in establishing a global initiative toward sport. The theory goes further to reveal the politically–based competitive nature of participating nations. The Olympics can provide international recognition and the platform to exercise political power through sport.

It is not difficult to prove that events like the Olympics hold global political influence. If anything, the Olympics can provide a platform for political and cultural ideologies to be set forth. In the 1972 Munich Olympic Games, members of the Israeli Olympic team (see image below) were held hostage and executed by a Palestinian militant group associated with Yasser Arafat’s Fatah organization. Since it had only been 27 years since World War II had ended, an Israeli team participating in the Olympics being held in Germany was significant in many ways. The Jewish team members felt they were taking a stance against the Nazi’s of the past, by showing the resilience of their people. As in this case, nations often link political and religious ideology. On a global impact, the 1972 Olympic Games created an unimaginable display of political influence in sport.

In 1980, the Moscow (Soviet Union) Olympics saw the largest boycott ever by the United States and 61 other countries, protesting the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Many nations participated in a secondary event in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania called the “Liberty Bell Classic”. Fifteen countries that participated in the Moscow Olympics, protested in the Opening Ceremony by marching the Olympic flag rather than their national flags. When competitors won medals, the Olympic Hymn and Olympic flag were used.

In 2001, talk began to center on Beijing and the 2008 Olympic games. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) granted Beijing the Olympics under the proviso that human rights in China would improve. However, many countries considered boycotting the games altogether. During the games, it was difficult to hide the competitiveness between China and the United States for the medal race. According to Sports Illustrated, following being awarded the games, China launched “Project 119” which was an initiative designed to improve their medal take in the 2008 Olympics. The project was representative of the 119 gold medals that were awarded in the 2000 games, of which China only received one. At the end of the 2008 Olympics, China received the highest ever – a total of 100 medals (51 gold). The United States received 110 total medals, only 36 being gold (Meyer, 2009). The political power implications in this case are undeniable. China is a communist nation, hosting a global initiated sporting event, driving economic growth and competing as a top-tier athletic organization in the Olympics. Representation of political power can be achieved through the Olympics, case and point – China.

Doping in Sports - Why?

We’ve all seen the headlines and heard the allegations – Marion Jones, Mark McGwire, Barry Bonds, Lance Armstrong, Floyd Landis…the list goes on. The real question is whether the issue of doping is societal or psychological? One could argue both, but we look at the societal factors in play here.

The world is becoming ever-growing and fast-paced. We are taught that in order to keep up with others, we must be competitive. We must work extremely hard to reach the top and continue to perform at high levels to ensure we remain there.

“Speak up or you won’t be heard”

“Be all you can be”

”Get a degree so you will get a better job”

“Get another degree so you get an even better job”

“Work hard for that next promotion”

“Give a 110%”

These are the values engrained in us by society, starting with our parents. Eventually the media takes over and begins forming our thoughts and beliefs on what it is to be successful. The media is reflecting what is believed by our society that in order to be great, we must give everything we have. We must sacrifice. If you work hard enough at anything – you will succeed. Our society defines success in many ways, but is mostly measured through money and status.

So what happens when you are a professional athlete? You trained at 110%, made your sacrifices, worked harder than everyone else, but it isn’t good enough anymore. Perhaps you are coming of age and cannot keep up with the younger, faster and stronger athletes. Perhaps your performance is not opening greater opportunities financially. Perhaps for a moment in time, your intense desire to be “great” outweighs the consequence that may ensue. Whatever the reason may be, professional athletes feel the pressure to become bigger, better, stronger and more productive in their careers. Our society has become enthralled with the successes and failures of its professional athletes. Our society has also placed a great significance on monetary gains and elite status – both of which are synonymous with successful professional athletes. In the end, the athletes themselves must make the ultimate decision to dope or not to dope. Psychological factors definitely play a huge role in why some do and others do not. However, we cannot ignore the fact that our society is driven off certain images of success. Professional athletes have an enormous amount of pressure to succeed in the short time they are active. A professional athlete’s income is much like a bell curve - where the bulk of income is generated in the middle of their career when their performance level is at its peak. Once age and novelty begin to wear, their value as a player and role model in our society decreases as well. They become expendable to organizations and sponsors which add to the overall pressure to succeed. Some would say – “Well that poor professional athlete, life must be so hard being rich and famous.” True enough, there is no excuse for cheating. However, we cannot ignore the outside factors playing a significant role in the issue.

Media Coverage & Women's Sports: Chicken or the Egg?

In the top-rated, most circulated, American sports publication (name held anonymous) – only 8% of the total coverage focused on women’s sports or athletes. That figure was generously calculated from a sample of 6 editions covering a 3-month period (May – July 2009), with “coverage” being defined as the name of a female athlete mentioned, an advertisement featuring a female athlete, an image (despite size) shown, or a full article. Taking these statistics into consideration, the following are facts:


Between May and July 2009…

1) The LPGA had 7 tournaments, with the total purse for all 7 events totaling $19.3 million.

2) The WNBA, the WPS (Women’s Professional Soccer League), and the NPF (National Pro Fast-Pitch Softball League) were in the heart of their seasons.

3) The NCAA Women’s College World Series took place, where the Washington Huskies went undefeated in the tournament, taking the Championship for the first time in history and finishing the season with a 50-12 record. The MVP, All-American and National Player of the Year, Danielle Lawrie, pitched six complete games in six days to take the championship for her team.


What forces in our society drive this disparity between men’s and women’s sports? It’s no secret that women have fought inferiority over the course of history. Women’s rights have been subjected to contempt and judgment; the right to vote, the right to equal pay and job opportunities, the right to gender equality. These same societal forces have played an undeniable part in women’s sports. In the early 1900s, medical doctors warned the public that playing sports for girls would deplete the necessary energy needed to conceive and bear healthy children (Coakley, 2007). Organizers and sponsors of sports during this time challenged that sport participation was not as important in the character development of females as it was for males. The opportunities for females to become involved in sports were limited, and often restrictive. It was not until after Title IX was passed (1972) that growth was seen in female athletic participation. Even at that, the mere expectations of female athletes are different. Think back to the 1999 Women’s World Cup. The moment when the USA’s Brandi Chastain scored the game winning penalty kick goal versus China to win. The real question is would anyone have still remembered that moment, if it was not for the controversy that arose afterwards? Controversy - because she removed her shirt in traditional soccer celebratory fashion, something Chastain’s male counterparts have done for years without ridicule.

The typical response is that women’s sports and female athletes do not receive as much coverage because their popularity does not compare to that of men’s sports and male athletes. If so, which comes first? Women’s sports are not popular so the media chooses not to cover it, or the media chooses not to cover it, so women’s sports do not gain popularity? The media is an influential and powerful entity born from our society.

Introduction

Do you often wonder where did sport come from? How did our society become so enthralled and integrated with sports? The answer is this: sport was born from society. The earliest records of sport date all the way back to the prehistoric ages. As society has changed over time, so has the role that sport plays. Sport is derived from the most basic element of a society, and that is its people. This basic human element is what comprises the sociological and cultural factors that we see arise in today's world. Factors such as race/ethnicity, religion, gender, sexual orientation and economic status, have been heavily debated time and time again. With each human element brings a cultural influence into sport. This blog was created in order to address these sociological and cultural issues present in sports today. This blog was created to ask questions…not give answers.